#3695 Wing Language Specification (approved)

Not fully implemented yet

This document is a specification of the programming language, and many features are still not implemented (see project board).

0. Preface

0.1 Motivation

The Wing Programming Language (aka winglang^RFC) is a general purpose programming language designed for building applications for the cloud.

What makes Wing special? Traditional programming languages are designed around the premise of telling a single machine what to do. The output of the compiler is a program that can be executed on that machine. But cloud applications are distributed systems that consist of code running across multiple machines and which intimately use various cloud services to achieve their business goals.

Wing’s goal is to allow developers to express all pieces of a cloud application using the same programming language. This way, we can leverage the power of the compiler to deeply understand the intent of the developer and implement it with the mechanics of the cloud.

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0.2 Design Tenets

• Developer Experience (DX) is priority #1 for Wing.
• Syntax design aims to be concise and minimal, while being "batteries included" at the same time in terms of tooling and DX.
• Developers coming from other mainstream cloud languages (C#, Java, and TS) should feel right at home.
• Public facing APIs and syntax are designed to be compatible with JSII. Wing Libraries are JSII libraries themselves.
• All clouds are treated equally.
• Syntactic sugar comes last.

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0.3 Table of Contents

• 0. Preface
  • 0.1 Motivation
  • 0.2 Design Tenets
  • 0.3 Table of Contents
• 1. General
  • 1.1 Types
  • 1.2 Utility Functions
  • 1.3 Phase Modifiers
  • 1.4 Storage Modifiers
  • 1.5 Access Modifiers
  • 1.6 Reassignability
  • 1.7 Optionality
  • 1.8 Type Inference
  • 1.9 Error Handling
  • 1.10 Recommended Formatting
  • 1.11 Memory Management
  • 1.12 Execution Model
  • 1.13 Asynchronous Model
• 2. Statements
  • 2.1 bring
  • 2.2 break
  • 2.3 continue
  • 2.4 return
  • 2.5 defer/await
  • 2.6 if
  • 2.7 for
  • 2.8 while
• 3. Declarations
  • 3.1 Structs
  • 3.2 Classes
  • 3.3 Preflight Classes
  • 3.4 Interfaces
  • 3.5 Variables
  • 3.6 Functions
  • 3.7 Arrays
  • 3.8 Enumeration
  • 3.9 Computed Properties
  • 3.10 Unit tests
• 4. Module System
  • 4.1 Imports
  • 4.2 Exports
• 5. Interoperability
• 5.1 JSII Interoperability
  • 5.1.1 External Libraries
  • 5.1.2 Internal Libraries
• 5.2 JavaScript
  • 5.2.1 TypeScript
  • 5.2.2 Type model
• 6. Miscellaneous
  • 6.1 Strings
  • 6.2 Comments
  • 6.3 Operators
  • 6.4 Kitchen Sink
  • 6.5 Roadmap
  • 6.6 Credits

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1. General

1.1 Types

1.1.1 Primitive Types

Name	Extra information
void	represents the absence of a type
nil	represents the absence of a value
any	represents everything and anything
num	represents numbers (doubles)
str	UTF-16 encoded strings
bool	represents true or false

any is only available to JSII imported modules.

User defined explicit "any" is supported iff declared by the user.
Almost all types can be implicitly resolved by the compiler except for "any".
"any" must be explicitly declared and annotated.

let x = 1;                  // x is a num
let v = 23.6;               // v is a num
let y = "Hello";            // y is a str
let z = true;               // z is a bool
let w: any = 1;             // w is an any
let q: num? = nil;          // q is an optional num

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const x: number = 1;
const v: number = 23.6;
const y: string = "Hello";
const z: boolean = true;
const w: any = 1;
const q: number? = undefined;

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1.1.2 Container Types

Name	Extra information
Set<T>	set type (set of unique items)
Map<T>	map type (key-value with string keys)
Array<T>	variable size array of a certain type
MutSet<T>	mutable set type
MutMap<T>	mutable map type
MutArray<T>	mutable array type
Promise<T>	promise type (inflight code)

Promise<T> is only available to JSII imported modules.

let z = {1, 2, 3};               // immutable set, Set<Num> is inferred
let zm = MutSet<num>{};          // mutable set
let y = {"a" => 1, "b" => 2};    // immutable map, Map<num> is inferred
let ym = MutMap<num>{};          // mutable map
let x = [1, 2, 3];               // immutable array, Array<num> is inferred
let xm = MutArray<num>[];        // mutable array
let w = new SampleClass();       // class instance (mutability unknown)

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const z: Set<number> = Object.freeze(new Set([1, 2, 3]));
const zm: Set = new Set();
const y: Map<string, number> = Object.freeze(new Map([["a", 1], ["b", 2]]));
const ym: Map = new Map();
const x: number[] = Object.freeze([1, 2, 3]);
const xm: number[] = [];
const w: SampleClass = new SampleClass();

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1.1.3 Function Types

Function type annotations are written as if they were closure declarations, with the difference that body is replaced with return type annotation.

The inflight modifier indicates that a function is an inflight function.
inflight in Wing implies async in JavaScript.

(arg1: <type1>, arg2: <type2>, ...) => <type>
inflight (arg1: <type1>, arg2: <type2>, ...) => <type>

// type annotation in wing: (num) => num
let f1 = (x: num): num => { return x + 1; };
// type annotation in wing: inflight (num, str) => void
let f2 = inflight (x: num, s: str) => { /* no-op */ };

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1.1.4 Json type

Wing has a data type called Json (alias is json). This type represents an immutable untyped JSON value, including JSON primitives (string, number, boolean), arrays (both heterogenous and homogeneous) and objects (key-value maps where keys are strings and values can be any other JSON value)).

Json objects are immutable and can be referenced across inflight context.

JSON is the "wire protocol of the cloud" and as such Wing offers built-in support for it. However, since Wing is statically-typed (type must be known during compilation) and JSON is dynamically typed (type is only known at runtime), bridging is required between these two models.

Let's look at a quick example:

struct Employee { 
  id: str;
  name: str;
}

let response = httpGet("/employees"); 
 // returns something like { "items": [ { "id": "12234", "name": "bob" }, ... ] }
 
let employees = Array<Employee>.fromJson(response.items);

for e in employees {
  log("hello, ${e.name}, your employee id is ${e.id}");
}

In the above example, the httpGet function returns a Json object from the server that has a single field items, with a JSON array of JSON objects, each with an id and name fields.

The expression response.items returns a Json array, and we use Array<T>.fromJson to convert this array from Json to an Array<Employee>. Note that by default fromJson will perform schema validation on the array and on each item (based on the declaration of the Employee struct).

1.1.4.1 Literals

Literals can be defined using the Json type initializers:

let jsonString  = Json "hello";
let jsonNumber  = Json 123;
let jsonBool    = Json true;
let jsonArray   = Json [ 1, 2, 3 ];
let jsonObj     = Json { boom: 123 };
let jsonMutObj = MutJson {
  hello: 123, 
  world: [ 1, "cat", 3 ],       // <-- heterogenous array
  "boom boom": { hello: 1233 }  // <-- non-symbolic key
};

The Json keyword can be omitted from Json object literals:

let jsonObj = { boom: 123, bam: [4, 5, 6] };

Every value within a Json array or object also has a type of Json.

1.1.4.2 JSON objects

To access a field within an object, use the . notation:

let boom: Json = jsonObj.boom;

Trying to access a non-existent field will fail at runtime. For example:

log(jsonObj.boom.dude.world);
// RUNTIME ERROR: Uncaught TypeError: Cannot read properties of undefined (reading 'world')

Like in JavaScript, it is also possible to access object fields using []:

let foo = j["my-field"].yourField["their-field"];

To obtain an array of all the keys within a JSON object use the Json.keys(o) method.

let j = Json { hello: 123, world: [ 1, 2, 3 ] };
assert(Json.keys(j) == ["hello", "world"]);

To obtain an array of all the values, use Json.values(o). To obtain an array of all key/value pairs use Json.entries(o) (P2):

assert(Json.values(j).equals([ Json 123, Json [ 1, 2, 3 ] ]));
assert(Json.entries(j).equals([
  [ Json "hello", Json 123 ],
  [ Json "world", Json [ 1, 2, 3 ] ]
]));

NOTE: values() and entries() return an array inside a Json object because at the moment we cannot represent heterogenous arrays in Wing.

1.1.4.3 JSON arrays

To access an array element, use the [] notation:

let item2 = jsonArray[2]; // type: Json

Trying to index a value that is not an array will return JavaScript undefined.

1.1.4.4 Assignment from native types

It is also possible to assign the native str, num, bool and Array<T> values and they will implicitly be casted to Json:

let myStr: str = "hello";
let myNum: num = 183;
let myBool: bool = true;
let myArr: Array<num> = [1,2,3];

let jsonObj = Json { 
  a: myString,
  b: myNum,
  c: myBool,
  d: myArr
};

1.1.4.5 Assignment to native types

We only allow implicit assignment from safe to unsafe types because otherwise we cannot guarantee safety (e.g. from str to Json but not from Json to str), so this won't work:

let j = Json "hello";
let s: str = j;
//           ^ cannot assign `Json` to `str`.

To assign a Json to a strong-type variable, use the fromJson() static method on the target type:

let myStr = str.fromJson(jsonString);
let myNumber = num.fromJson(jsonNumber);
let myArr = Array<num>.fromJson(jsonArray);

1.1.4.6 Schema validation

All fromJson() methods will validate that the runtime type is compatible with the target type in order to ensure type safety (at a runtime cost):

str.fromJson(jsonNumber);      // RUNTIME ERROR: unable to parse number `123` as a string.
num.fromJson(Json "\"hello\""); // RUNTIME ERROR: unable to parse string "hello" as a number

let myArray = Json [1,2,3,"hello"];
Array<num>.fromJson(myArray); // RUNTIME ERROR: unable to parse `[1,2,3,"hello"]` as an array of `num`.

Use unsafe: true to disable this check at your own risk (P2):

let trustMe = Json [1,2,3];
let x = Array<num>.fromJson(trustMe, unsafe: true);
assert(x.at(1) == 2);

For each fromJson(), there is a tryFromJson() method which returns an optional T? which indicates if parsing was successful or not:

let s = str.tryFromJson(myJson) ?? "invalid string";

1.1.4.7 Assignment to user-defined structs

All structs also have a fromJson() method that can be used to parse Json into a struct:

struct Contact {
  first: str;
  last: str;
  phone: str?;
}

let j = Json { first: "Wing", last: "Lyly" };
let myContact = Contact.fromJson(j);
assert(myContact.first == "Wing");

When a Json is parsed into a struct, the schema will be validated to ensure the result is type-safe:

let p = Json { first: "Wing", phone: 1234 };
Contact.fromJson(p);
// RUNTIME ERROR: unable to parse Contact:
// - field "last" is required and missing
// - field "phone" is expected to be a string, got number.

Same as with primitives and containers, it is possible to opt-out of validation using unsafe: true:

let p = Json { first: "Wing", phone: 1234 };
let x = Contact.fromJson(p, unsafe: true);
assert(x.last.len > 0);
// RUNTIME ERROR: Cannot read properties of undefined (reading 'length')

Struct parsing is partial by default. This means that parsing is successful even if the Json includes extraneous fields:

let p = Json { first: "hello", last: "world", anotherField: "ignored" };
let c = Contact.fromJson(p);
assert(c.first == "hello");
assert(c.last == "world");
// `c.anotherField` is not a thing

This can be disabled using partial: false (P2):

Contact.fromJson(Json { first: "hello", last: "world", anotherField: "ignored" }, partial: false);
// RUNTIME ERROR: cannot parse Contact due to extraneous field "anotherField"

1.1.4.7 Schemas

Structs have a schema static method which returns a JsonSchema object (P2):

let schema = Contact.schema();
schema.validate(j);

1.1.4.8 Mutability

To define a mutable JSON container, use the MutJson type:

let myObj = MutJson { hello: "dear" };

Now you can mutate the contents by assigning values:

let fooNum = 123;
myObj.world = "world";
myObj.dang = [1,2,3,4];
myObj.subObject = {};
myObj.subObject.arr = [1,"hello","world"];
myObj.foo = fooNum;

For the sake of completeness, it is possible to also define primitives using MutJson but that's not very interesting because there is no way to mutate them:

let foo = MutJson "hello";
// ok what now?

Use the MutJson.deepCopy() method to get an immutable deep copy of the object:

let mutObj = MutJson { hello: 123 };
let immutObj = mutObj.deepCopy(mutObj);
mutObj.hello = 999;
assert(immutObj.hello == 123);

To delete a key from an object, use the Json.delete() method:

let myObj = MutJson { hello: 123, world: 555 };
Json.delete(myObj, "world");

let immutObj = Json { hello: 123 };
Json.delete(immutObj, "hello");
//          ^^^^^^^^^ expected `JsonMut`

To modify a Json array, you will need to parse it into a native MutArray and then modify it. This implies that at the moment, it is not possible to mutate heterogenous JSON arrays:

let j1 = MutJson { hello: [1,2,3,4] };
let a1 = MutArray<num>.fromJson(j1);
a1.push(5);

j1.hello = a1;

We will need to revisit this as we progress if this is a major use case.

1.1.4.9 Serialization

The Json.stringify(j: Json): str static method can be used to serialize a Json as a string (JSON.stringify):

assert(Json.stringify(jsonString) == "\"hello\"");
assert(Json.stringify(jsonObj) == "{\"boom\":123}");
assert(Json.stringify(jsonMutObj, indent: 2) == "{\n\"hello\": 123,\n"  \"world\": [\n    1,\n    2,\n    3\n  ],\n  \"boom\": {\n    \"hello\": 1233\n  }\n}");

The Json.parse(s: str): Json static method can be used to parse a string into a Json:

let jArray = Json.parse("[1,2,3]");
let arr = Array<num>.fromJson(jArray);

Json.tryParse returns an optional:

let o = Json.tryParse("xxx") ?? Json [1,2,3];

1.1.4.10 Equality, diff and patch

The Json.equals(lhs: Json, rhs: Json): bool static method can be used to determine if two values are equal (recursively comparing arrays and objects):

assert(Json.equals(jsonString, Json "hello"));
assert(Json.equals(jsonObj, { boom: [ 1, 2, 3 ] }));
assert(!Json.equals(Json { hello: [ 1, 2, 3 ] }, Json { hello: [ 1, 2 ] }));

The Json.diff(lhs: Json, rhs: Json): JsonPatch static method can be used to calculate the deep difference between two JSON values. It returns a list of differences in json-patch format (P2).

let j1 = Json {
  baz: "qux",
  foo: "bar"
};

let j2 = Json {
  baz: "boo",
  hello: ["world"]
};

assert(Json.diff(j1, j2) = [
  { op: JsonPatch.REPLACE, path: "/baz", value: "boo" },
  { op: JsonPatch.ADD, path: "/hello", value: ["world"] },
  { op: JsonPatch.REMOVE, path: "/foo" }
]);

The Json.patch(j: Json, patch: JsonPatch): Json static method applies a JsonPatch to a Json object (P2).

1.1.4.11 Logging

A Json value can be logged using log(), in which case it will be pretty-formatted:

log("my object is: ${jsonObj}");
// is equivalent to
log("my object is: ${Json.stringify(jsonObj, indent: 2)}");

This will output:

my object is: {
  boom: 123
}

It is also legal to just log a json object:

log(jsonMutObj);

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1.1.5 Duration

The Duration (alias duration) type represents a time duration.

Duration literals are numbers with m, s, h suffixes:

let oneMinute = 1m;
let twoSeconds = 2s;
let threeHours = 3h;
let halfMinute: duration = 0.5m;

Then:

assert(oneMinute.seconds == 60);
assert(halfMinute.seconds == 30);
assert(threeHours.minutes == 180);

Duration objects are immutable and can be referenced across inflight context.

1.1.6 Datetime

The Datetime (alias datetime) type represents a single moment in time in a platform-independent format.

Datetime objects are immutable and can be referenced across inflight context.

Here is the initial API for the Datetime type:

struct DatetimeComponents {
  year: num;
  month: num;
  day: num;
  hour: num;
  min: num;
  sec: num;
  ms: num;
  tz: num; // timezone offset in minutes from UTC
}

class Datetime {
  static utcNow(): Datetime;             // returns the current time in UTC timezone
  static systemNow(): Datetime;          // returns the current time in system timezone
  static fromIso(iso: str): Datetime;    // creates an instance from an ISO-8601 string
  static fromComponents(c: DatetimeComponents): Datetime;

  timestamp: num;     // Date.valueOf()/1000 (non-leap seconds since epoch)
  timestampMs: num;  // Date.valueOf() (non-leap milliseconds since epoch)

  hours: num;         // Date.getHours()
  min: num;           // Date.getMinutes()
  sec: num;           // Date.getSeconds()
  ms: num;            // Date.getMilliseconds()
  day: num;           // Date.getDay()
  month: num;         // Date.getMonth()
  year: num;          // Date.getFullYear()

  timezone: num;      // Date.getTimezoneOffset() (offset in minutes from UTC)
  utc: Datetime;      // returns the same time in UTC timezone

  toIso(): str;      // returns ISO-8601 string
}

A few examples:

let now = Datetime.utcNow();
log("It is now ${now.month}/${now.day}/${now.year} at ${now.hours}:${now.min}:${now.sec})");
assert(now.timezone == 0); // UTC

let t1 = DateTime.fromIso("2023-02-09T06:20:17.573Z");
log("Timezone is GMT${d.timezone() / 60}"); // output: Timezone is GMT-2
log("UTC: ${t1.utc.toIso())}");            // output: 2023-02-09T06:21:03.000Z

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1.2 Utility Functions

Name	Extra information
log	logs anything serializable.
throw	creates and throws an instance of an exception
panic	exits with a serializable, dumps the trace + a core dump
assert	checks a condition and panics if evaluated to false

Wing is a statically typed language, so attempting to redefine any of the above functions, just like any other "symbol" will result in a compile-time error.

The above functions can accept variadic arguments of any type except throw which only accepts one argument and that is the message to be contained in the error.

panic is a fatal call by design. If the intention is error handling, panic is the last resort. Exceptions are non fatal and should be used instead for effectively communicating errors to the user.

log(23, "Hello", true, { "a": 1, "b": 2 });
throw("a recoverable error occurred");
panic("a fatal error encountered", [1,2]);
assert(x > 0, x < 10);

Equivalent TypeScript Code

console.log(23, "Hello", true, Object.freeze(new Map([["a", 1], ["b", 2]])));
// throws
throw new Error("a recoverable error occurred");
// calling panic in wing is fatal
(() => {
  console.error("Something went wrong", [1,2]);
  // generate core dump
  // show stack trace
  process.exit(1);
})();
// multiple assertions
(() => { assert.ok(x > 0); assert.ok(x < 10); })();

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1.3 Phase Modifiers

In Wing, we differentiate between code that executes during compilation and code that executes after the application has been deployed by referring to them as preflight and inflight code respectively.

The default (and implicit) execution context in Wing is preflight. This is because in cloud applications, the entrypoint is the definition of the app's cloud architecture, and not the code that runs within a specific machine within this cloud infrastructure.

The phase modifier inflight is allowed in the context of declaring interface and class members (methods, fields and properties). Example code is shown in the preflight classes section.

class Bucket {
  // preflight method
  allowPublicAccess() {

  }

  // inflight method
  inflight put(key: str, contents: str): void {

  }
}

Inflight members can only be accessed from an inflight context (an inflight method or an inflight closure) and preflight members can only be accessed from a preflight context (a preflight method or a preflight closure).

The inflight modifier is allowed when defining function closures or classes. This implies that these types can only be used within inflight context.

let handler = inflight () => {
  log("hello, world");
};

inflight class Foo {
  // ...
}

For example (continuing the Bucket example above):

let bucket = new Bucket();
// OK! We are calling a preflight method from a preflight context
bucket.allowPublicAccess();
// ERROR: cannot call inflight methods from preflight context
bucket.put("file.txt", "hello");

let handler = inflight () => {
  // now we are in inflight context
  // OK! We are calling an inflight methods from an inflight context
  bucket.put("file.txt", "hello");
};

Preflight classes can only be instantiated within preflight context:

class Bar {}

new Bar(); // OK! Bar is a preflight class

let handler2 = inflight() => {
  new Bar(); // ERROR: cannot instantiate a preflight class from an inflight context
}

Bridge between preflight and inflight is crossed with the help of immutable data structures, "structs" (user definable and Struct), and the capture mechanism.

Preflight class methods and initializers can receive an inflight function as an argument. This enables preflight classes to define code that will be executed on a cloud compute platform such as lambda functions, docker, virtual machines etc.

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1.4 Storage Modifiers

A storage modifier is a keyword that specifies the placement of a function or variable in the program memory once compiled. Some declarations might have a temporary storage (such as a local closure definition), while others might have a permanent storage (such as a global variable).

Currently the only storage modifier is static. static indicates a definition is only available once per program and for the entire duration of that program. All statics must be defined inline and initialized right away.
Statics are not allowed on structs or interfaces.

Statics are supported in both inflight as well as preflight modes of execution.

A declaration for a static member is a member declaration whose declaration specifiers contain the keyword static. The keyword static must appear before other specifiers. More details in the classes section.

The name of any static data member and static member function must be different from the name of the containing class regardless of the casing.

Code samples for static are not shown here. They are shown in the relevant sections below.

To avoid confusion, it is invalid to have a static and a non-static with the same name. Overloading a static is allowed however.
Accessing static is done via the type name and the . operator.

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1.5 Access Modifiers

Visibility inference is done with the following rules:

• Default visibility is private for all members. If modifiers are missing, the symbol is assumed private by the compiler and not exported.
• public is to declare a symbol that is visible for and exported publicly.
• protected is to declare a symbol that is visible for and exported publicly but only for the class and its subclasses.
• internal is to declare a symbol that is visible for and exported publicly but only for the current compilation unit.

Accessing fields, members, or structured data is done with ..

Visibility modifiers can be applied to members of classes. Mixing protected and internal is not allowed.

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1.6 Reassignability

Re-assignment to variables that are defined with let is not allowed in Wing.

Variables can be reassigned to by adding the var modifier:

// wing
let var sum = 0;
for item in [1,2,3] {
  sum = sum + item;
}

Re-assignment to class fields is allowed if field is marked with var. Examples in the class section below.

var is available in the body of class declarations. Assigning var to immutables of the same type is allowed. That is similar to assigning non readonlys to readonlys in TypeScript.

By default function closure arguments are non-reassignable. By prefixing var to an argument definition you can make a re-assignable function argument:

// wing
let f = (arg1: num, var arg2: num) => {
  if (arg2 > 100) {
    // We can reassign a value to arg2 since it's marked `var`
    args2 = 100;
  }
}

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1.7 Optionality

Nullity is a primary source of bugs in software. Being able to guarantee that a value will never be null makes it easier to write safe code without constantly having to take nullity into account.

In order to allow the compiler to offer stronger guarantees, Wing includes a higher-level concept called "optionality" which requires developers to be more intentional about working with the concept of "lack of value".

Here's a quick summary of how optionality works in Wing:

• x: T? marks x as "optional of T". This means that x can either be nil (without a value) or have a value of type T.
• To test for a value, the unary expression x? returns a true if x has a value and false otherwise.
• if let y = x { } else { } is a special control flow statement which binds y inside the first block only if x has a value. Otherwise, the else block will be executed.
• The x?.y?.z notation can be used to access fields only if they have a value. The type of this expression is Z? (an optional based on the type of the last component).
• The x ?? y ?? z notation will return the value in x if there is one, y otherwise or z. The last expression in a ?? chain (e.g. z) must be of type T (not T?).
• The default value notation (= y) in declarations of struct fields or function arguments will use this value if a value is not provided, and implies type is T (not T?).
• The x ??= y notation returns x if it has a value or assigns x with y and returns the value of y.
• The x ?? throw(message) and x ?? return val are special cases of ?? which can be used for unwrapping (if a value exists) or early bailout.
• The keyword nil can be used in assignment scenarios to indicate that an optional doesn't have a value. It cannot be used to test if an optional has a value or not.

1.7.1 Declaration

1.7.1.1 Struct fields

One of the more common use cases for optionals is to use them in struct declarations.

struct Person {
  name: str;
  address: str?;
}

In the Person struct above, the address field is marked as optional using ?. This means that we can initialize without defining the address field:

let david = Person { name: "david" };
let jonathan = Person { name: "jonathan", address: "earth" };
assert(david.address? == false);
assert(jonathan.address? == true);

The default value notation (=) can also be used in struct declarations. If provided, the field is also not required in a struct literal definition, and the default value will be implied. It also means that the type of the field must be T and not T?, because we can ensure it has a value (in the example below the field radix as a type of num).

struct FormatOpts {
  radix: num = 10;
  someOptional: str?;
}

let opts = FormatOpts {};
assert(opts.radix == 10);
assert(opts.someOptional? == false); // <-- no value inside `someOptional`

A value can be omitted from a struct literal if the field is optional or if it has a default value in the struct declaration. If an optional field doesn't have a default value, its type must be T? (someOptional above). If it has a default value it's type must be T (radix above).

This is a compilation error:

struct Test {
  hello: str? = "hello";
//       ^^^^ type should be `str` since a default value is provided
}

NOTE: Default values can only be serializable values (immutable primitives, collections of primitives or other serializable structs). This limitation exists because we will evaluate the expression of the default value only upon struct initialization (it is stored in the type system).

1.7.1.2 Variables

Use T? to indicate that a variable is optional. To initialize it without a value use = nil.

let var x: num? = 12;
let var y: num? = nil;
assert(y? == false); // y doesn't have a value
assert(x? == true); // x has a value

// ok to reassign another value because `y` is reassignable (`var`)
y = 123;
assert(y? == true);

x = nil;
assert(x? == false);

1.7.1.3 Class fields

Similarly to struct fields, fields of classes can be also defined as optional using T?:

class Foo {
  myOpt: num?;
  var myVar: str?;

  init(opt: num?) {
    this.myOpt = opt;
    this.myVar = nil; // everything must be initialized, so you can use `nil` to indicate that there is no value
  }

  setMyVar(x: str) {
    this.myVar = x;
  }
}

1.7.1.4 Function arguments

In the following example, the argument by is optional, so it is possible to call increment() without supplying a value for by:

let increment = (x: num, by: num?): num => {
  return x + (by ?? 1);
};

assert(increment(88) == 89);
assert(increment(88, 2) == 90);

Alternatively, using the default value notation can be used to allow a parameter not to be assigned when calling the function. Using a default value in the function declaration ensures that by always has a value so there is no need to unwrap it (this is why its type is num and not num?):

let increment = (x: num, by: num = 1): num {
  return x + by;
}

Non-optional arguments can only be used before all optional arguments:

let myFun = (a: str, x?: num, y: str): void = { /* ... */ };
//-----------------------------^^^^^^ ERROR: cannot declare a non-optional argument after an optional

If a function uses a keyword argument struct as the last argument, and there are other optional arguments before, it also has to be declared as optional.

let parseInt = (x: str, radix: num?, opts?: ParseOpts): num { /* ... */ };
// or
let parseInt = (x: str, radix: num = 10, opts: ParseOpts = ParseOpts {}): num { /* ... */ };

The optionality of keyword arguments is determined by the struct field's optionality:

struct Options {
  myRequired: str;
  myOptional: num?;
  implicitOptional: bool = false;
}

let f = (opts: Options) => { }

f(myRequired: "hello");
f(myOptional: 12, myRequired: "dang");
f(myRequired: "dude", implicitOptional: true);

1.7.1.5 Function return types

If a function returns an optional type, use the return nil; statement to indicate that the value is not defined.

struct Name { first: str, last: str };

let tryParseName = (fullName: str): Name? => {
  let parts = fullName.split(" ");
  if parts.len < 2 {
    return nil;
  }

  return Name { first: parts.at(0), last: parts.at(1) };
}

// since result is optional, it needs to be unwrapped in order to be used
if let name = tryParseName("Neo Matrix") {
  print("Hello, ${name.first}!");
}

1.7.2 Testing using x?

To test if an optional has a value or not, you can either use x == nil or x != nil or the special syntax x?.

let isAddressDefined = myPerson.address?; // type is `bool`
let isAddressReallyDefined = myPerson.address != nil; // equivalent

// or within a condition
if myPerson.address? {
  log("address is defined but i do not care what it is");
}

// can be negated
if !myPerson.address? {
  log("address is not defined");
}

if myPerson.address == nil {
  log("no address")
}

1.7.3 Unwrapping using if let

The if let statement can be used to test if an optional is defined and unwrap it into a non-optional variable defined inside the block:

if let address = myPerson.address {
  print(address.len);
  print(address); // address is type `str`
}

NOTE: if let is not the same as if. For example, we currently don't support specifying multiple conditions, or unwrapping multiple optionals. This is something we might consider in the future.

1.7.4 Unwrapping or default value using ??

The ?? operator can be used to unwrap or provide a default value. This returns a value of T that can safely be used.

let address: str = myPerson.address ?? "Planet Earth";

?? can be chained:

let address = myPerson.address ?? yourPerson.address ?? "No address";
//            <----- str? ---->    <----- str? ------>    <-- str --->

The last element in a ?? chain must be a non-optional type T.

1.7.5 Optional chaining using ?.

The ?. syntax can be used for optional chaining. Optional chaining returns a value of type T? which must be unwrapped in order to be used.

let ipAddress: str? = options.networking?.ipAddress;

if let ip = ipAddress {
  print("the ip address is defined and it is: ${ip}");
}

1.7.6 Roadmap

In the future we will consider the following additional sugar syntax:

• x ?? throw("message") to unwrap x or throw if x is not defined.
• x ??= value returns x or assigns a value to it and returns it to support lazy evaluation/memoization (inspired by Nullish coalescing assignment).
• Support ?? for different types if they have a common ancestor (and also think of interfaces).

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1.8 Type Inference

Type can optionally be put between name and the equal sign, using a colon.
Partial type inference is allowed while using the ? keyword immediately after the variable name.

When type annotation is missing, type will be inferred from r-value type.
r-value refers to the right hand side of an assignment here.

All defined symbols are immutable (constant) by default.
Type casting is generally not allowed unless otherwise specified.

Function arguments and their return type is always required. Function argument type is inferred iff a default value is provided.

let i = 5;
let m = i;
let arrOpt? = MutArray<num>[];
let arr = Array<num>[];
let copy = arr;
let i1? = nil;
let i2: num? = i;

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const i: number = 5;
const m: number = i;
const arrOpt: number[]? = [];
const arr: number[] = Object.freeze([]);
const copy: number[] = Object.freeze([...arr]);
const i1: any = undefined;
const i2: number? = i;

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1.9 Error Handling

Exceptions and try/catch/finally are the error mechanism. Mechanics directly translate to JavaScript. You can create a new exception with a throw call.

In the presence of try, both catch and finally are optional but at least one of them must be present. In the presence of catch the variable holding the exception (e in the example below) is optional.

panic is meant to be fatal error handling.
throw is meant to be recoverable error handling.

An uncaught exception is considered user error but a panic call is not. Compiler must guarantee exception safety by throwing a compile error if an exception is expected from a call and it is not being caught.

try {
  let x: num? = 1;
  throw("hello exception");
} catch e {
  log(e);
} finally {
  log("done");
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

try {
  let x: number? = 1;
  throw new Error("hello exception");
} catch (e) {
  console.log(e);
} finally {
  console.log("done");
}

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1.10 Recommended Formatting

Wing recommends the following formatting and naming conventions:

• Interface names should start with capital letter "I".
• Class, struct, and interface names should be TitleCased.
• Members of classes, and interfaces cannot share the same TitleCased representation as the declaring expression itself.
• Parentheses are optional in expressions. Any Wing expression can be surrounded by parentheses to enforce precedence, which implies that the expression inside an if/for/while statement may be surrounded by parentheses.

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1.11 Memory Management

There is no implicit memory de-allocation function, dynamic memory is managed by Wing and is garbage collected (relying on JSII target GC for the meantime).

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1.12 Execution Model

Execution model currently is delegated to the JSII target. This means if you are targeting JSII with Node, Wing will use the event based loop that Node offers.

In Wing, writing and executing at root block scope level is forbidden except for the entrypoint of the program. Root block scope is considered special and compiler generates special instructions to properly assign all preflight classes to their respective scopes recursively down the constructs tree based on entry.

Entrypoint is always a Wing source with an extension of .w. Within this entry point, a root preflight class is made available for all subsequent preflight classes that are initialized and instantiated. Type of the root class is determined by the target being used by the compiler. The root class might be of type App in AWS CDK or TerraformApp in case of CDK for Terraform target.

Following "shimming" is only done for the entrypoint file and nowhere else. Type of the "shim" changes from cdk.Stack to TerraformStack for cdk-tf.

// Wing Entrypoint Code:
let a = MyResource();
let b = MyResource() be "my-resource";

Equivalent TypeScript Code

(new class extends cdk.Stack {
  constructor(scope: constructs.Construct, id: string) {
    const a = new MyResource(this, "MyResource");
    const b = new MyResource(this, "my-resource");
  }
})(new cdk.App(), "WingEntry");

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1.13 Asynchronous Model

Wing builds upon the asynchronous model of JavaScript currently and expands upon it with new keywords and concepts. The async keyword of JavaScript is replaced with inflight in Wing deliberately to indicate extended functionality.

Main concepts to understand:

• preflight implies synchronous execution.
• inflight implies asynchronous execution.

Contrary to JavaScript, any call to an async function is implicitly awaited in Wing. As a result, await in Wing is a rarely used keyword, since its use is implied by the inflight keyword. await is only used when you want a defered Promise to be fulfilled before execution flow continues.

The Wing compiler emits awaits when encountering Promise<T> types as r-values in expressions. Use the defer keyword to defer the resolution of a promise and obtain a Promise<T> type instead (a.k.a unawait what the compiler does).

The Promise<T> type is not allowed to hold nested promises in T.

2. Statements

2.1 bring

bring statement can be used to import and reuse code from other Wing files or other JSII supported languages. The statement is detailed in its own section in this document: Module System.

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2.2 break

break statement allows to end execution of a cycle. This includes for and while loops currently.

for let i in 1..10 {
  if i > 5 {
    break;
  }
  log(i);
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

for (let i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
  if (i > 5) {
    break;
  }
  console.log(i);
}

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2.3 continue

continue statement allows to skip to the next iteration of a cycle. This includes for and while loops currently.

for let i in 1..10 {
  if i > 5 {
    continue;
  }
  log(i);
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

for (let i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
  if (i > 5) {
    continue;
  }
  console.log(i);
}

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2.4 return

return statement allows to return a value or exit from a called context.

class MyClass {
  public myPublicMethod() {}
  private _myPrivateMethod(): void {}
  protected myProtectedMethod(): nil { return nil; }
  internal _myInternalMethod(): str { return "hi!"; }
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

class MyClass {
  public myPublicMethod(): void {}
  private myPrivateMethod(): undefined {}
  protected myProtectedMethod(): undefined { return undefined; }
  // specific compiled instruction is up to implementation of the compiler
  public __wing_InternalMyInternalMethod(): string { return "hi!"; }
}

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2.5 defer/await

Read Asynchronous Model section as a prerequisite.

You mostly do not need to use defer and await keywords in Wing.
"defer" prevents the compiler from awaiting a promise and grabs a reference.
"await" and "Promise" are semantically similar to JavaScript's promises.
"await" statement is only valid in inflight function declarations.
Awaiting non promises in Wing is a no-op just like in JavaScript.

// Wing program:
class MyClass {
  inflight foo(): num {
    let w = defer somePromise();
    let x = await w;
    return x;
  }
  inflight boo(): num {
    let x = somePromise();
    return x;
  }
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

class MyClass {
  async foo(): Promise<number> {
    const w = somePromise();
    const x = Object.freeze(await w);
    return x;
  }
  async boo(): Promise<number> {
    const x = Object.freeze(await somePromise());
    return x;
  }
}

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2.6 if

Flow control can be done with if/elif/else statements.
The if statement is optionally followed by elif and else.

// Wing program:
let x = 1;
let y = "sample";
if x == 2 {
  log("x is 2");
} elif y != "sample" {
  log("y is not sample");
} else {
  log("x is 1 and y is sample");
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const x: number = 1;
const y: string = "sample";
if (x === 2) {
  console.log("x is 2");
} else if (y !== "sample") {
  console.log("y is not sample");
} else {
  console.log("x is 1 and y is sample");
}

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2.7 for

for..in statement is used to iterate over an array or a set.
Type annotation after an iteratee (left hand side of in) is optional.
The loop invariant in for loops is implicitly re-assignable (var).

// Wing program:
let arr = [1, 2, 3];
let set = {1, 2, 3};
for item in arr {
  log(item);
}
for item: num in set {
  log(item);
}
for item in 0..100 {
  log(item);
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const arr: number[] = Object.freeze([1, 2, 3]);
const set: Set<number> = Object.freeze(new Set([1, 2, 3]));
for (const item of arr) {
  console.log(item);
}
for (const item of set) {
  console.log(item);
}
// calling 0..100 does not allocate, just returns an iterator
function* iterator(start, end) {
  let i = start;
  while (i < end) yield i++;
  while (i > end) yield i--;
}
const iter = iterator(0, 100);
for (const val of iter) {
  console.log(val);
}

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2.8 while

while statement is used to execute a block of code while a condition is true.

// Wing program:
while callSomeFunction() {
  log("hello");
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

while (callSomeFunction()) {
  console.log("hello");
}

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3. Declarations

3.1 Structs

Structs are loosely modeled after typed JSON literals in JavaScript.
Structs are defined with the struct keyword.
Structs are "bags" of immutable data.

Structs can only have fields of primitive types, preflight classes, and other structs.
Array, set, and map of above types is also allowed in struct field definition.
Visibility, storage and phase modifiers are not allowed in struct fields.

Structs can inherit from multiple other structs.

// Wing program:
struct MyDataModel1 {
  field1: num;
  field2: str;
};
struct MyDataModel2 {
  field3: num;
  field4: bool?;
};
struct MyDataModel3 extends MyDataModel1, MyDataModel2 {
  field5: str;
}
let s1 = MyDataModel1 { field1: 1, field2: "sample" };
let s2 = MyDataModel2 { field3: 1, field4: true };
let s3 = MyDataModel2 { field3: 1 };
let s4 = MyDataModel3 {
  field1: 12,
  field2: "sample", 
  field3: 11,
  field4: false,
  field5: "sample"
};

Equivalent TypeScript Code

interface MyDataModel1 {
  public readonly field1: number;
  public readonly field2: string;
}
interface MyDataModel2 {
  public readonly field3: number;
  public readonly field4?: boolean;
}
interface MyDataModel3 extends MyDataModel1, MyDataModel2 {
  public readonly field5: string;
  public readonly field6: number;
}
const s1: MyDataModel1 = { field1: 1, field2: "sample" };
const s2: MyDataModel2 = { field3: 1, field4: true };
const s3: MyDataModel2 = { field3: 1, field4: undefined };
const s4: MyDataModel3 = {
  field1: 12,
  field2: "sample",
  field3: 11,
  field4: false,
  field5: "sample",
  field6: 11
};

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3.2 Classes

Similar to other object-oriented programming languages, Wing uses classes as its first-class composition pattern.

Classes consist of fields and methods in any order.
The class system is a single-dispatch class based object-orientated system.
Classes are instantiated with the new keyword.

Classes are associated with a specific execution phase (preflight or inflight). The phase indicates in which scope objects can be instantiated from this class.

If a phase modifier is not specified, the class inherits the phase from the scope in which it is declared. This implies that, if a class is declared at the root scope (e.g. the program's entrypoint), it will be a preflight class. If a class is declared within an inflight scope, it will be implicitly an inflight class.

A method that has the name init is considered to be a class constructor (or initializer, or allocator).

inflight class Name extends Base impl IMyInterface1, IMyInterface2 {
  init() {
    // constructor implementation
    // order is up to user
    this._field1 = 1;
    this._field2 = "sample";
  }

  // class fields (private by due to having leading underscore)
  _field1: num;
  _field2: str;

  // static method (access with Name.staticMethod(...))
  public static staticMethod(arg: type, arg: type, ...) { /* impl */ }
  // private method
  private _privateMethod(arg: type, arg: type, ...): type { /* impl */ }
  // visible to outside the instance
  public publicMethod(arg:type, arg:type, ...) { /* impl */ }
  // visible to children only
  protected protectedMethod(type:arg, type:arg, ...) { /* impl */ }
  // public in current compilation unit only
  internal _internalMethod3(type:arg, type:arg, ...): type { /* impl */ }
}

Default initialization does not exist in Wing. All member fields must be initialized in the constructor. Absent initialization is a compile error. All field types, including the optional types must be initialized. Optionals are initialized to nil if omitted, unless the type is nil?, which in that case, absent initialization is a compile error.

Member function and field access in constructor with the "this" keyword before all fields are initialized is invalid and would throw a compile error.

In other words, the this keyword is immutable to its field access operator . before all the member fields are properly initialized. The behavior is similar to JavaScript and TypeScript in their "strict" mode.

class Foo {
  x: num;
  init() { this.x = 1; }
}
class Bar {
  y: num;
  z: Foo;
  init() {
    // this.log() // is compile error here
    this.y = 1;
    // this.log() // is also compile error here
    this.z = new Foo();
    this.log(); // OK to call here
  }
  public log() {
    log(this.y);
  }
}
let a = new Bar();
a.log(); // logs 20.

Overloading methods is allowed. This means functions can be overloaded with many signatures only varying in the number of arguments and their unique type order. Overloading the constructor is also allowed.
Inheritance is allowed with the extends keyword. super can be used to access the base class, immediately up the inheritance chain (parent class).

Calling using the member access operator . before calling super in inherited classes is forbidden. The behavior is similar to JavaScript and TypeScript in their "strict" mode.

class Foo {
  x: num;
  init() { this.x = 0; }
  public method() { }
}
class Boo extends Foo {
  init() {
    // this.x = 10; // compile error
    super();
    this.x = 10; // OK
  }
  public override method() {
    // override implementation
  }
}

Classes can inherit and extend other classes using the extends keyword.
Classes can implement interfaces iff the interfaces do not contain inflight. You can use the keyword final to stop the inheritance chain.

class Foo {
  x: num;
  init() { this.x = 0; }
  public method() { }
}
final class Boo extends Foo {
  init() { super(); this.x = 10; }
  public override method() {
    // override implementation
  }
}
// compile error
// class FinalBoo extends Boo {}

By default all methods are virtual. But if you are about to override a method, you need to explicitly provide the keyword override.
Static, private, and internal methods cannot be and are not virtual.

Statics are not inherited. As a result, statics can be overridden mid hierarchy chain. Access to statics is through the class name that originally defined it: <class name>.Foo.

Child class must not introduce additional signatures (overloads) for overridden (virtual) methods.

Multiple inheritance is invalid and forbidden.
Multiple implementations of various interfaces is allowed.
Multiple implementations of the same interface is invalid and forbidden.

In methods if return type is missing, : void is assumed.

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3.3 Preflight Classes

Classes declared within a preflight scope (the root scope) are implicitly bound to the preflight phase. These classes can have specific inflight members.

For example:

// Wing Code:
class Foo {
  init() { /* initialize preflight fields */ } // preflight constructor
  inflight init() {} // optional client initializer

  // inflight members
  inflight foo(arg: num): num { return arg; }
  inflight boo(): num { return 32; }

  // inflight fields
  inflight field1: num;
  inflight field2: str;
  inflight field3: bool;

  // preflight members
  foo(arg: num): num { return arg; }
  boo(): num { return 32; }
  
  // preflight fields
  field4: num;
  field5: str;
  field6: bool;

  // re-assignable class fields, read about them in the mutability section
  var field4: num;
  var field5: str;
}

Preflight objects all have a scope and a unique ID. Compiler provides an implicit scope and ID for each object, both overridable by user-defined ones in constructor.

The default for scope is this, which means the scope in which the object was defined (instantiated). The implicit ID is the type name of the class iff the type is the only preflight object of this type being used in the current scope. In other words, if there are multiple preflight objects of the same type defined in the same scope, they must all have an explicit id.

Preflight objects instantiated at block scope root level of entrypoint are assigned the root app as their default implicit scope.

Preflight object instantiation syntax uses the let keyword the same way variables are declared in Wing. The as and in keywords can be used to customize the scope and identifier assigned to this preflight object.

let <name>[: <type>] = new <Type>(<args>) [as <id>] [in <scope>];

// Wing Code:
let a = Foo(); // with default scope and id
let a = Foo() in scope; // with user-defined scope
let a = new Foo() as "custom-id" in scope; // with user-defined scope and id
let a = new Foo(...) as "custom-id2" in scope; // with constructor arguments

"id" must be of type string. It can also be a string literal with substitution support (normal strings as well as shell strings).
"scope" must be an expression that resolves to a preflight object.

Preflight objects can be captured into inflight scopes and once that happens, inside the capture block only the inflight members are available.

Preflight classes can extend other preflight classes (but not structs) and implement interfaces. If a class implements an interface marked inflight interface, then all of the implemented methods must be inflight.

Declaration of fields of the same name with different phases is not allowed due to requirement of having inflight fields of same name being implicitly initialized by the compiler. But declaration of methods with different phases is allowed.

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3.4 Interfaces

Interfaces represent a contract that a class must fulfill. Interfaces are defined with the interface keyword. Both preflight and inflight signatures are allowed. If the inflight modifier is used in the interface declaration, all methods will be automatically considered inflight methods. impl keyword is used to implement an interface or multiple interfaces that are separated with commas.

All methods of an interface are implicitly public and cannot be of any other type of visibility (private, protected, etc.).

Interface fields are not supported.

// Wing program:
interface IMyInterface1 {
  method1(x: num): str;
  inflight method3(): void;
};

inflight interface IMyInterface2 {
  method2(): str; // <-- "inflight" is implied
};

class MyResource impl IMyInterface1, IMyInterface2 {
  field1: num;
  field2: str;

  inflight init(x: num) {
    // inflight client initialization
    this.field1 = x;
    this.field2 = "sample";
  }
  method1(x: num): str {
    return "sample: ${x}";
  }
  inflight method3(): void { }
  inflight method2(): str {
    return this.field2;
  }
};

Equivalent TypeScript Code

interface IMyInterface1 {
  public readonly field1: number;
  public method1(x: number): string;
}
interface IMyInterface2 {
  public readonly __inflight__field2: string;
  public __inflight__method2(): string;
}
// this is only shown as a hypothetical sample
class MyResource extends constructs.Construct
  implements IMyInterface1, IMyInterface2 {
  public readonly field1: number;
  public readonly __inflight__field2: string;
  public __inflight__constructor() {
    // inflight client initialization
    this.field1 = x;
    this.__inflight__field2 = "sample";
  }
  public __inflight__method2(): string {
    return this.__inflight__field2;
  }
  public method1(x: number): string {
    return `sample: ${x}`;
  }
}

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3.5 Variables

Let let be let. (Elad B. 2022)

let <name>[: <type>] = <value>;

Assignment operator is =.
Assignment declaration keyword is let.
Type annotation is optional if a default value is given.

let n = 10;
let s: str = "hello";

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const n: number = 10;
const s: string = "hello";

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3.6 Functions

3.6.1 Closures

It is possible to create closures.
It is not possible to create named closures.
However, it is possible to create anonymous closures and assign to variables (function literals). Inflight closures are also supported.

// preflight closure:
let f1 = (a: num, b: num) => { log(a + b); }
// inflight closure:
let f2 = inflight (a: num, b: num) => { log(a + b); }
// OR:
// preflight closure:
let f4 = (a: num, b: num): void => { log(a + b); }
// inflight closure:
let f5 = inflight (a: num, b: num): void => { log(a + b); }

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3.6.2 Promises

Promises in Wing are defined with Promise<T> syntax.
All inflight functions implicitly wrap their return type in Promise<T>.

let schema = inflight (): Struct => {
  return someCallForSchema();
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const schema = async (): Promise<Struct> => {
  return await someCallForSchema();
}

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3.6.3 Struct Expansion

If the last argument of a function call is a struct, then the struct in the call is "expandable" with a special : syntax.
In this calling signature, order of struct members do not matter.
Partial struct expansion in terms of supplying less number of arguments than the number of fields on type of the struct expected is not allowed. Omitting nils is allowed with the same rules as explicit initialization in class constructors.

This style of expansion can be thought of as having positional arguments passed in before the final positional argument, which if happens to be a struct, it can be passed as named arguments. As a result of named arguments being passed in, it is safe to omit optional struct fields, or have order of arguments mixed.

struct MyStruct {
  field1: num;
  field2: num;
};
let f = (x: num, y: num, z: MyStruct) => {
  log(x + y + z.field1 + z.field2);
}
// last arguments are expanded into their struct
f(1, 2, field1: 3, field2: 4);
// f(1, 2, field1: 3); // can't do this, partial expansion is not allowed

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3.6.4 Variadic Arguments

If the last argument of a function type is the ...args keyword followed by an Array type, then the function accepts typed variadic arguments. Expansion of variadic arguments is not supported currently and the container of variadic arguments is accessible with the args key like a normal array instance.

let f = (x: num, ...args: Array<num>) => {
  log(x + y + args.len);
}
// last arguments are expanded into their array
f(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 34..100);

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3.7 Arrays

Arrays are dynamically sized in Wing and are defined with the [] syntax.
Individual array items are also accessed with the [] syntax.
Arrays are similar to dynamically sized arrays or vectors in other languages.

let arr1 = [1, 2, 3];
let arr2 = ["a", "b", "c"];
let arr3 = MutArray<str>["a1", "b2", "c3"];
let l = arr1.len + arr2.len + arr3.len + arr1[0];

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const arr1: number[] = Object.freeze([1, 2, 3]);
const arr2: string[] = Object.freeze(["a", "b", "c"]);
const arr3: string[] = ["a1", "b2", "c3"];
const l = arr1.length + arr2.length + arr3.length + arr1[0];

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3.8 Enumeration

Enumeration type (enum) is a type that groups a list of named constant members. Enumeration is defined by writing enum, followed by enumeration name and a list of comma-separated constants in a {}. Last comma is optional in single line definitions but required in multi line definitions.
Naming convention for enums is to use "TitleCase" for name and ALL_CAPS for members.

enum SomeEnum { ONE, TWO, THREE };
enum MyFoo {
  A,
  B,
  C,
};
let x = MyFoo.B;
let y = x; // type is MyFoo

Equivalent TypeScript Code

enum SomeEnum { ONE, TWO, THREE };
enum MyFoo {
  A,
  B,
  C,
};
const x: MyFoo = MyFoo.B;
const y: MyFoo = x;

nameof operator is used to get the name of a constant member at compile time. For example nameof(MyEnum.MEMBER) resolves to "MEMBER" at compile time.

This allows painless conditionals when enums are serialized and deserialized over the wire without littering the source with strings everywhere. Compare:

// Wing Code:
enum SomeEnum { ONE, TWO, THREE };
let someVal: str = "ONE";
if someVal == nameof(SomeEnum.ONE) {
  // whatever1
} elif someVal == nameof(SomeEnum.TWO) {
  // whatever2
}

Which is functionally equivalent to:

// Wing Code:
enum SomeEnum { ONE, TWO, THREE };
let someVal: str = getEnumSerializedFromNetwork();
if someVal == "ONE" {
  // whatever1
} elif someVal == "TWO" {
  // whatever2
}

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3.9 Computed Properties

You may use the following syntax to define computed properties.
Computed properties are syntactic sugar for getters and setters which themselves are syntactic sugar for methods, therefore omitting either one is acceptable.

"Read block" must always return a value of the same type as the property.

Keyword new can be used inside the write block to access the incoming r-value of the assignment (write) operation. new is always the same type as the type of the property itself.

Both preflight and inflight computed properties are allowed.
Keyword var behind computed properties is not allowed. inflight computed properties are also allowed.

// Wing Code:
struct Vec2 {
  x: num;
  y: num;
}

class Rect {
  var size: Vec2;
  var origin: Vec2;

  center: Vec2 {
    read {
      let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2);
      let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2);
      return Vec2(x: centerX, y: centerY);
    }
    write {
      origin.x = new.x - (size.width / 2);
      origin.y = new.y - (size.height / 2);
    }
  };

  inflight prop: num { /* ... */ }
}

Equivalent TypeScript Code

interface Vec2 { x: number; y: number; }
class Rect {
  size: Vec2;
  origin: Vec2;
  // computed property with a getter and setter block
  get center(): Vec2 {
    let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2);
    let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2);
    return Vec2(x: centerX, y: centerY);
  }
  set center(_new: Vec2) {
    origin.x = _new.x - (size.width / 2);
    origin.y = _new.y - (size.height / 2);
  }
}

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3.10 Unit tests

Unit tests can be defined in Wing using the built-in test statement. A test statement expects a name and a block of inflight code to execute.

let b = new cloud.Bucket();

test "can add objects" {
  b.put("key", "value");
  assert(b.get("key") == "value");
}

The behavior of running tests with wing test CLI command is determined by the cloud.TestRunner resource in the Wing SDK, which can be implemented for any compiler target.

See the CLI User Manual for more details on running tests.

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4. Module System

The module system in Wing uses the bring expression to reuse code.
bring expression allows code to "import" functions, classes, and variables from other files, to allow reusability.
bring expression is only allowed at the top of the file before any other code. Comments before the first bring expression are valid.

4.1 Imports

To import a JSII / Wing package under a named import, you may use the following syntax:

bring std; // from std bring * as std;
bring cloud; // from cloud bring * as cloud;
bring "path/to/what.js" as what; // from "path/to/what.js" bring * as what;

Currently, "bringing" other Wing files is treated as a preprocessor step and it acts like C #includes. Symbols collision is fatal in this style of imports.

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4.2 Exports

In preflight, anything with public at block scope level is importable. This includes functions, classes, structs and interfaces. In inflight, all of the above excluding preflight classes are importable. Variables are not exportable.

Preflight classes cannot be instantiated in inflight functions. There is no synthesizer inside and no deployment system in the inflight body to provision.

"Bringing" other Wing files currently ignores exports, but bringing JSII modules respect the visibility of JSII module exports.

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5. Interoperability

5.1 JSII Interoperability

5.1.1 External Libraries

You may import JSII modules in Wing and they are considered preflight classes if their JSII type manifest shows that the JSII module is a construct. Wing is a consumer of JSII modules currently.

bring "aws-cdk-lib" as cdk;
let bucket = cdk.awsS3.Bucket(
  publicAccess: true,
);

5.1.2 Internal Libraries

Wing libraries themselves are JSII modules. They can be used in all other JSII supported languages.

5.2 JavaScript

The extern "<commonjs module path or name>" modifier can be used on method declarations in classes to indicate that a method is backed by an implementation imported from a JavaScript module. The module can either be a relative path or a name and will be loaded via require().

In the following example, the static inflight method makeId is implemented in helper.js:

// task-list.w
class TaskList {
  // ...

  inflight addTask(title: str) {
    let id = TaskList.makeId(); // or TaskList.v6();
    this.bucket.put(id, title);
  }

  extern "./helpers.js" static inflight makeId(): str;

  // Alternatively, you can use a module name
  extern "uuid" static inflight v6(): str;
} 

// helpers.js
const uuid = require("uuid");

exports.makeId = function() {
  return uuid.v6();
};

Given a method of name X, the compiler will map the method to the JavaScript export with the matching name (without any case conversion).

Initially we only support specifying extern for static methods (either inflight or preflight), but we will consider adding support for instance methods in the future. In those cases the first argument to the method will implicitly be this.

5.2.1 TypeScript

It is possible to use TypeScript to write helpers, but at the moment this will not be directly supported by Wing. This means that you will need to setup the TypeScript toolchain to compile your code to JavaScript and then use extern against the JavaScript file.

In the future we will consider adding direct support for extern "./helpers.ts".

5.2.2 Type model

The table below shows the mapping between Wing types and JavaScript types, represented with TypeScript syntax. When calling extern function, the arguments are checked against these declared types and the return type is assumed to be satisfied by the called function.

If frozen, the value is expected to be immutable and will throw an error if any attempt is made to modify it.

Built-In Wing Type	JavaScript Type	Frozen?
void	undefined
nil	null
any	any
num	number
str	string
bool	boolean
Set<T>	Set<T>	Yes
Map<T>	{ [key: string]: T }	Yes
Array<T>	T[]	Yes
MutSet<T>	Set<T>
MutMap<T>	{ [key: string]: T }
MutArray<T>	T[]
Promise<T>	Promise<T>
Json	string ⏐ number ⏐ boolean ⏐ null ⏐ json[] ⏐ { [key: string]: json }	Yes
MutJson	string ⏐ number ⏐ boolean ⏐ null ⏐ json[] ⏐ { [key: string]: json }

User-Defined Wing Types	JavaScript Type	Frozen?
class	class, only with members whose phase is compatible with the function signature
interface	interface, only with members whose phase is compatible with the function signature
struct	interface	Yes
enum	string-based enum-like Object	Yes

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6. Miscellaneous

6.1 Strings

String reference doc is available here. Type of string is UTF-16 internally.
All string declaration variants are multi-line.

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6.1.1 Normal strings "..."

The string inside the double quotes is processed, and all notations of form ${<expression>} are substituted from their respective scopes. The behavior is similar to `text ${sub.prop}` notation in JavaScript.
Processing unicode escape sequences happens in these strings.
" and $ can be escaped with backslash \ inside string substitutions.

let name = "World";
let s = "Hello, ${name}!";
let l = s.len;

Equivalent TypeScript Code

const name = "World";
const s = `Hello, ${name}!`; // with substitution
const l = s.length; // length of string

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6.1.2 Shell strings `...`

If string is enclosed with backticks, the contents of that string will be interpreted as a shell command and its output will be used as a string. `echo "Hello"` is equal to "Hello" for example.

Shell strings are invalid in the bring expression.

let name = `echo "World"`;
let s = "Hello, ${name}!";

Shell strings are executed in an instance of the BusyBox shell, compiled to run in WebAssembly to guarantee portability, in runtime. The stdout is returned as a string, interleaved with stderr. If BusyBox exits with a non-zero exit code, the stderr is thrown as an exception.

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6.2 Comments

Single line comments start with a // and continue to the end of the line.
Multi-line comments are supported with the /* ... */ syntax.
Commenting in Wing has a style that's described earlier in this document.

// comment
/* comment */
/*
   multi line comment
*/

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6.3 Operators

Unary operators are not supported except outline below.
Arithmetic assignment operators are not supported.
Ternary or conditional operators are not supported.

6.3.1 Relational Operators

Operator	Description	Example
==	Checks for equality	a == b
!=	Checks for inequality	a != b
>	Checks if left is greater than right	a > b
<	Checks if left less than right	a < b
>=	Checks if left is greater than or equal to right	a >= b
<=	Checks if left is less than or equal to right	a <= b

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6.3.2 Logical Operators

Operator	Description	Example
&&	Logical AND operator	a && b
\|\|	Logical OR operator	a \|\| b
!	Logical NOT operator	!a

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6.3.3 Mathematics Operators

Operator	Description	Example
*	Multiplication	a * b
/	Division	a / b
\	Floor Division	a \ b
%	Modulus	a % b
+	Addition	a + b
-	Subtraction	a - b
**	Power	a ** b

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6.3.4 Operator Precedence

Operator	Notes
()	Parentheses
**	Power
-x	Unary minus
*, /, \, %	Multiplication, Division, Floor division, Modulus
+, -	Addition, Subtraction
==, !=, >, >=, <, <=	Comparisons, Identity, operators
!	Logical NOT
&&	Logical AND
||	Logical OR

Table above is in descending order of precedence.
= operator in Wing does not return a value so you cannot do let x = y = 1.
Operators of the same row in the table above have precedence from left to right in the expression they appear in (e.g. 4 * 2 \ 3). In other words, order is determined by associativity.

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6.3.5 Short Circuiting

For the built-in logical NOT operators, the result is true if the operand is false. Otherwise, the result is false.

For the built-in logical AND operators, the result is true if both operands are true. Otherwise, the result is false. This operator is short-circuiting if the first operand is false, and the second operand is not evaluated.

For the built-in logical OR operators, the result is true if either the first or the second operand (or both) is true. This operator is short-circuiting if the first operand is true, and the second operand is not evaluated.

Note that bitwise logic operators do not perform short-circuiting.

In conditionals, if an optional type is used as the only r-value expression of the condition statement, it's equivalent to checking it against nil. Note that using a bool? type in this short-circuit is a compile error due to ambiguity. Using a nil? type is also ambiguous and results in a compile error.

let x: num? = 1;
if x {
  // ...
}

Which is equivalent to:

let x: num? = 1;
if x != nil {
  // ...
}

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6.3.6 Equality

Of the operators supported, the following can be used with non-numeric operands:

• ==: can be used to check for equality of types and values in operands.
• !=: can be used to check for inequality of types and values in operands.

When these operators are used on immutable data, values are checked for equality as well as types. When these operators are used on mutable data, types and refs are checked for equality. Concept of "refs" is loosely defined as "any object" that's instantiated through a class currently and then gets reassigned to other names until a mutable method is called on it, which then turns into a new "ref".

This behavior is the same as JavaScript with the addition of structural equality for immutable data (on top of nominal typing).

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6.4 Kitchen Sink

This is an example with almost every feature of the Wing, showing you a whole picture of what the syntax feels like.

bring cloud;
bring fs;

struct DenyListRule {
  packageName: str;
  version: str?;
  reason: str;
}

struct DenyListProps {
  rules: MutArray<DenyListRule>[];
}

class DenyList {
  _bucket: cloud.Bucket;
  _objectKey: str;

  init(props: DenyListProps) {
    this._bucket = cloud.Bucket();
    this._objectKey = "deny-list.json";

    let rulesDir = this._writeToFile(props.rules, this._objectKey);
    this._bucket.upload("${rulesDir}/*/**", prune: true, retainOnDelete: true);
  }

  _writeToFile(list: MutArray<DenyListRule>[],  filename: str): str {
    let tmpdir = fs.mkdtemp();
    let filepath = "${tmpdir}/${filename}";
    let map = MutMap<DenyListRule>{}; 
    for rule in list {
      let suffix = DenyList._maybeSuffix(rule.version);
      let path = "${rule.packageName}${suffix}";
      map[path] = rule;
    }
    fs.writeJson(filepath, map);
    return tmpdir;
  }

  inflight rules: MutMap<DenyListRule>{}?; 

  inflight init() {
    // this._bucket is already initialized by the capture mechanic!
    this.rules = this._bucket.get(this._objectKey) ?? MutMap<DenyListRule>{}; 
  }

  public inflight lookup(name: str, version: str): DenyListRule? {
    return this.rules[name] ?? this.rules["${name}/v${version}"];
  }

  static _maybeSuffix(version: str?): str {
    if version {
      return "/v${version}";
    } else {
      return "";
    }
  }
}

let denyList = DenyList();
let filterFn = inflight (event: cloud.QueueEvent) => {
  let packageName = event.data["packageName"];
  let version = event.data["version"];
  let reason = event.data["reason"];
  if denyList.lookup(packageName, version) {
    log("Package rejected: ${packageName}");
  } else {
    log("Package accepted: ${packageName}");
  }
};

queue = cloud.Queue();
filter = cloud.Function(filterFn);
queue.setConsumer(filter);

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6.5 Roadmap

• Asynchronous Execution Safety Model.
• Make the language async by default.
• Make inflight functions async by default.
• First class support for regx, glob, and cron types.
• Support of math operations over date and duration types.
• Add time, date, and durations as first class types with syntax.
• More useful enums: Support for Enum Classes and Swift style enums.
• Reflection: add an extended typeof operator to get type information.
• Advanced OOP: Support for abstract and private implementations.
• Enforce naming conventions on public APIs (required by JSII).
• Develop a conformance test suite for ISO certification.
• Launch a formal spec site with ECMA standards.
• Built-in automatic formatter and linter.
• Distributed concurrency primitives.
• Distributed data structures.

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6.6 Credits

• Contributors (A-Z):
  • Chris R. (@Chriscbr)
  • Elad B. (@eladb)
  • Eyal K. (@ekeren)
  • Mark MC. (@MarkMcCulloh)
  • Sepehr L. (@3p3r)
  • Shai B. (@ShaiBer)
  • Uri B. (@staycoolcall911)
  • Yoav S. (@yoav-steinberg)

Inspiration:

• https://github.com/WheretIB/nullc
• https://github.com/chaos-lang/chaos
• https://github.com/BlazifyOrg/blazex
• https://github.com/YorickPeterse/inko
• https://github.com/thesephist/ink
• https://github.com/vlang/v